At the heart of a publication is often a set of observations (data of one form or another, laboratory generated, historical incidents, or the like) and interpretation of those observations.

Standards that help ensure the integrity of the written record are likely self-evident to the readers of this module. They are nevertheless included to emphasize that these standards are not merely requirements for a good publication. They also represent ethical standards for scholarly publication. These standards include:

• Published data should accurately represent the data collected during the research
  
  
• Data should not be excluded from a publication for the sole reason that they do not agree with a particular model
  
  
• Techniques used to analyze data should be compatible with the techniques used to collect the data and should not be selected because they skew the results in favor of a particular model.
  

In writing a paper, decisions are made about what information to include. While generally there are some concerns about avoiding unnecessary detail, at the same time one must be careful to include all relevant information. In papers describing an experiment, for instance, sufficient information should be included so that a reasonably well-prepared reader could reproduce the experiment or study.

Sometimes, however, information is purposely excluded so that a research group can continue to maintain a competitive advantage. Information sometimes is also excluded when it is not consistent with a trend the author is trying to establish. Omitting information under these circumstances undermines the goal of creating an accurate scholarly record. Such exclusions are not ethical and should not be done.